From Absolutism to Liberalism

Enlightened Thought and its Transformative Effect

What's the Enlightenment?

Also known as the Age of Reason, was an intellectual and cultural movement in the eighteenth century that emphasized reason over superstition and science over blind faith. Using the power of the press, Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke, Isaac Newton, and Voltaire questioned accepted knowledge and spread new ideas about openness, investigation, and religious tolerance throughout Europe and the Americas. Many consider the Enlightenment a major turning point in Western civilization, an age of light replacing an age of darkness.

The diffusion of the Illustrated thought

In the eighteenth century, the spread of knowledge was much slower than now, there were no computers or internet for the intellectuals of the time to share and consult information. the books, gazettes and newspapers were their main link, but they had a very limited scope, since the majority of the population was illiterate (they could not read or write), for that reason, the enlightened thinkers tried to get their ideas to a larger public, through different means and with the support of money from public funds (government) as well as private funds (bourgeois). They emphasized the scientific, literary or artistic societies and the academies, that is to say, the aristocrats and the bourgeois. They met to discuss the latest studies, works or research of their contemporaries.

One of the ways in which the thinkers of the Enlightenment managed to spread their ideas to that public they longed for, was through the Encyclopedia or Reasoned dictionary of science, arts and crafts, published in 1751 and 1772. In this monumental work, the enlightened ones sought to make a systematic synthesis of all human knowledge.

The compilation of so much information would prove to be a titanic task, but the project directors Denis Diderot and Jean D'Alambert, devoted 20 years to its elaboration. The encyclopedia was made up of 28 volumes. And in addition to the two directors, more than 100 men of science and letters of the 18th century participated. Why did they do it? Because they wanted to lay the foundations to transform European society.

                                                              Criticisms of the Old Regime and Absolutism

It is very likely that among the thinkers of the 18th century there were differences in their ideologies, but one feature that all the enlightened shared was the criticism of the predominant political regime during the 17th century in Europe, known as Ancient Regime. That is why, in its place, they proposed to establish a new model of political and social organization based on the principles of freedom and equality. They criticized absolutism and refuted the established idea that all the power of government resided in the figure of the monarch, who had been chosen by God as ruler through the divine right of kings.

A clear example of this criticism was manifested in the works of Montesquieu (1689-1755) who advocated a division of powers (legislative, executive and judicial) that limited the power of kings, with special emphasis on the judicial power being totally independent against the other two.

Rousseau (1712-1778), for his part, defended the need for the establishment of a Social Contract between the governed and the rulers, which guaranteed the defense of the basic rights of each individual, as Locke had previously proposed. He also introduced the principle of Popular Sovereignty,  which established that power emanates from the consent of the governed expressed freely by means of the act of voting.

The enlightened thinkers defended several other principles that for the time had a revolutionary effect on the European society of the 18th century and that still today are a fundamental part of current democracies.

Perhaps the man who had the greatest impact with his ideas was Jena-Marie Aroute, better known as Voltaire (1694-1778). An ingenious and mocking man, he showed the weakness of the arguments of those who still defended the absolutist regime. Voltaire was characterized by his social and political criticism during the reign of Louis XV. His irony, with which he always attacked the French nobility, attracted a large number of artists, intellectuals and bourgeois.

Among his attacks stand out those he did against the Church because of its dogmatic nature, its obstruction of knowledge and the inequality it caused in society. In fact, the need to separate the interests and beliefs of the Church from those of the State, a principle known as Laicism, was another common element among the enlightened thinkers. Likewise, these intellectuals firmly opposed to the establishment of a stratified society that was conformed by closed groups (Nobility, Clergy and the Third State) to which it was acceded only by birth, independently of the economic level.

In this ancient model, the relationship between subjects and kings, or between subjects only, was based on inequality, since the obligations and rights varied depending on the social class level to which each individual belonged.

The enlightened defended, instead, equality of origin, social mobility and that individuals could stand out based on their value and intelligence.

Thus, they proclaimed that no one could inherit or enjoy honor, prestige or privileges in the name of their ancestors. This questioned the origin of the monarchical power through the divine right of kings, theory defended by thinkers like Jacques Bossuet (1627-1704). These theories had constituted the justification of absolutism as a model of government, since under the premise of the divine right of kings, they were the representatives of God and had no necessity of justifying their decisions and acts before anyone.

Liberalism

By 1750, enlightened thought had evolved, incorporating new ideas and was enriched by proposals from different fields of knowledge. The philosophical approaches of the Enlightenment became part of a broader and more complex doctrine known as liberalism, which represented the political and economic interests of the bourgeoisie, its main driving force. In politics, liberalism was characterized by the defense of individual freedom, legal equality among citizens, the division of powers, secularism, private property, suffrage (vote) and parliamentary representation. It was precisely this political tendency that was responsible for the great revolutions of the 18th century: the independence of the Thirteen Colonies and the French Revolution as examples.

Enlightened despotism

The illustration traveled outside of France and crossed the borders of the entire European continent, also reaching some American colonies, including New Spain and the English colonies in North America, where they were well received. Its influence was felt in the European courts and had special reception among some kings who were aware that absolutist policies were unable to solve the economic and social problems that were generated within the kingdoms.

Conscious that the possible social revolts would jeopardize the survival of the absolute monarchy, the kings were forced to adopt a series of reforms that, at least in appearance, modified the situation and would reassure the bourgeoisie and the rest of the population. Most of these reforms were based on enlightened ideals and constituted a movement known as enlightened despotism. This political doctrine, of a reformist nature, sought to establish a monarchical system in which society should be organized and led in a scientific manner; that is, that the king should have decisions guided by reason and not by ancient precepts and customs such as divine right. Many monarchs adopted these reforms and promoted education and development of science within their nations. This gave origin to the creation of many great academies in the 18th century.

Although most of the absolutist reforms of government remained, officials and bureaucrats began to call themselves state servants and said to work for the public good and to improve the living conditions of the communities, so that everyone could reach the goal, happiness. The actions of the enlightened despots were effectively reforming, although the communities did not participate in the political decision making and were never consulted. In reality, the monarchical authorities only served their own interests. Therefore, the illustrated despotism was summarized in the following formula: "Everything for the people, but without the people".

Friedrich of Prussia, Louis XV of France, Charles III of Spain and Catherine the Great of Russia, were some of the main exponents of this movement.

Many of them acted as patrons and protectors of men of science, philosophers or writers and artists, whose company disputed and offered them attractive economic conditions and high positions at the head of a scientific institute or academy, such as the French academy.